The Opium War and Its Impact on Social, Economical, Political, and Military Development of China (1840-1919)

I could not pretend to justify the opium trade on moral grounds,

But as a merchant I insist it has been . . . fair, honorable and legitimate…

Warren Delano, grandfather of Franklin Roosevelt (Meyer 1)

Two Opium Wars that were between 1839-1842 and 1856-1860 became the main factors, which opened China to the world and brought big political, economical and military changes.

            Before the Opium War China was very closed country that had not developed international relations with Western countries. There were three reasons that can be explained such “close-door” policy. One of them is the Chinese world perception where its country was the Central Kingdom, and other states were “barbarians” that unworthy of Chinese attention. Moreover, it was considered that Heaven was round and the Earth was square (Beeching, Epstein, and Graham S. 2).

            The second reason was fear of Western occupation or colonization that had spread around the world after the Industrial Revolution. In spite of few international contacts, China had known about conquests of India, Philippines, and Malaysia by Western countries (Beeching, Epstein, and Graham S. 3).

            The third reason was absence of demand foreign goods because China had developed internal trade (Ulrich 2).

Therefore, the best decision, from Chinese point of view, was “close-door” policy.

Chinese foreign trade was very high government controlled.  Port of Canton city was single place where it was allowed to trade with Western merchants. Moreover, government of China gave foreign trade monopoly just small group of Chinese merchants and only via them Britain could maintained trade relations. As a result, local merchants used such situation to impose high price on products made in China (Beeching, Epstein, and Graham S. 2 – 5).

Despite of limited foreign trade and expensiveness of Chinese goods, Western world had big demand in Chinese products, especially in tea, silk, medicine and porcelain.  For example, at that time ordinary London citizen spent 5% of his or her budget in order to purchase tea (Hanes and Sanello 1).

Silver and Indian cotton were the main products that Britain could offer to China as payment for tea or silk. But by the 1940s Chinese cotton from south region became one of the main substitutes of Indian. Finally, such unequal trade situation led to the big debt of Britain, especially, the East India Company through which it conducted trade with China. The debt was equal to 40 million pounds sterling. As a result, the best solution in such situation, from Britain point of view, was to start selling of Bengal opium to China.

Opium was one of the most appropriate products for selling it China because Chinese medicine had used it from 4^th-7^th century in order to cure insomnia and diarrhea. Moreover, it was used as an anesthetic in such diseases as dysentery and cholera (Miron, J., Feige C. 5).

The biggest part of opium was imported by the East India Company from Bengal and Bombay. Opium trade started in 1715 when port Canton was opened for foreign trading.

The large scale opium trading was begun in 1770. It was used to buy Chinese tea. In 1799, Chinese government started to fear big British influence and threaten the East India Company to prohibit tea trade if the Company did not stop opium import to China (Hanes, T., and Sanello 2).

It is very interesting that the East India Company refused all accusation in opium trading. Nevertheless, it is known that from 1796 it sold opium to Calcutta’s English merchants who then supplied it Chinese people.

In 1814 and 1831 Chinese Emperor imposed strict anti-opium laws. The main reasons of such decision were big number of addict and outflow of silver from China.

By the 1830s, number of opium addicts was equal about 12 million of people. Furthermore, almost all 40-year men smoked opium.

Chinese economy also suffered very much from opium trade. It disturbed trade balance between China and Western countries. Chinese tea and silk export could not exceed opium import. Moreover, by 1839 this situation led to large budget deficit that was about 60 million taels (Beeching, Epstein, and Graham S. 2 – 5; Miron and Feige 2).

Nevertheless, British merchants continued to sell opium and bribed Canton’s officials.

In 1836, Chinese Emperor absolutely prohibited to smoke and sell opium and the main punishment was death. Moreover, in order to ensure this anti-opium law Chinese government sent to Canton Special Commissioner Lin Tse-Hsu in 1839.

Lin Tse-Hsu was one of the key players in opium wars. He was a brilliant commissioner with high morale and who was not indifferent about the prosperity and the future of China. He understood the big menace and harmful effect of the opium import in China. To help the China, he achieved the appointment of Imperial Commissioner at Canton, and his main purpose and desire was to cut off the opium trade. After his appointment, March 1839, he took active action against Chinese merchants and western traders of opium, for this purpose he shut down all the traffic in opium. He was aggressively fighting against the bribery and corruption and destroyed all opium stores. On March 24, 1839 Lin seized illegal stocks of opium and destroyed 20000 chests of opium, which belonged to British merchants (Wakeman, Frederic 128). However, he understood that taking these actions was not enough to stop the drag trade, and he decided to fight with the roots of the problem. Therefore, he decided to compose a letter to Queen of England, Victoria, requesting her to cease the opium trade and to protect the legal rights of China’s citizens. The extract from this letter: “that is to say, the great profit made by barbarians is all taken from the rightful share of china. By what right do they then in return use the poisonous drug to injure the Chinese people? Even though the barbarians may not necessarily intend to do us harm, yet in coveting profit to an extreme, they have no regard for injuring others. Let us ask, where is your conscience? I have heard that the smoking of opium is very strictly forbidden by your country; that is because the harm caused by the opium is clearly understood. Since it is not permitted to do harm to your country, then even less should you let it be passed on to the harm of other countries” (Craig, Graham 843)? So, the commissioner Lin in his letter included the argument that if the opium trade and consumption is illegal in Britain, because it is fully aware of its harmful effect, it should not pass these harm to other countries.  However the British ignored the request of China.  Probably, if the only question was opium, probably England replied to the Lin’s request.  However, the main one of contention was treaty relations.  There were not formal treaty relations between two countries.  The British refused on principle to submit to emperor and to hand over to Chinese legal system, they behaved vicious and barbaric.  In response commissioner Lin threatened to stop all trade relations, and expel English from the China.  This was main cause of the beginning of opium war. Lin The-shu later was officially disgraced for his activity in Canton, and was sent to Turkestan for a new appointment. However, he was one of the officials, who were aware of the need to accept the western technology, and military methods, because he understood the technological superiority of England.

The 1st Opium war in November 1839 was not very high conflict bur it became the cause of sending British warships to Canton in June 1840.

Starting of Opium war was a very smart Britain decision. There were several reasons. First of all, China by that time had a very big budget deficit and did not have enough money to support its army. Secondly, Chinese weapon and artillery could not compete with British because at that time Britain had one of the greatest naval fleet and army in the world.

As a result, China was absolutely defeated by Britain and signed “Nanjing Treaty” that became first “unequal treaty” between China and Western countries.

This treaty included 8 main points and according to them Hong Kong was ceded to the Britain. Moreover, China was obligated to open for foreign trade and missioners not only port of Canton but also Amoy, Shanghai, Foochow, and Ningpo. Furthermore, according to third point of the treaty, China had to pay 21 million of silver dollars to the Britain as a repair of damage that was caused in the 1^st Opium War. The 4^th article stopped Gong Hang monopoly that allowed only small group of Chinese merchants to conduct international trade. Moreover, this treaty eliminated internal transit duties and decreased import tariffs. According to 6^th point of the Nanjing Treaty, Britain principals got the same status as Chinese officials. Furthermore, British people were exempted from Chinese laws. The last statement guaranteed “the adoption of nation principle in diplomatic agreements with Western countries”(Wallechinsky and Wallace 2)

The 1^st Opium war had big effects on military, economical and political development. Some of them were positive others were negative.

One of the main negative consequences of the Opium War was unemployment and the basic cause was the flow of cheap Western products. As a result, it led to elimination, for example, textile industry.

Furthermore, the Nanjing Treaty that exempted foreigners from Chinese legislation allowed British criminal easy organized their networks and led to crime increasing.

Moreover, Chinese economy was at the edge of collapse that was caused by cheap machine-made products imported from industrial Britain. It was almost eliminated Chinese textile industries because clothes in China were very expensive owing to hand-made production. Another factor that led Chinese economy to decline was decreasing of import dues from 65% to 5%. Furthermore, after the 1^st Opium War Britain got free access to such very popular and high priced Chinese items as tea and silk. Tea export increased in 560%. If in 1843 it was about 7,500,000 kilograms, in 1855 it had became about 42,000,000 kilograms correspondingly. And silk export was increased from 2000 bales in 1843 to 56,000 bales in 1855. As a result of increasing of tea and silk export, many farmers instead of food, started to produce only silk and tea. Finally, such situation led to high food price (Beeching, Epstein, and Graham 5; Wallechinsky and Wallace 1).

Nevertheless, the 1^st Opium War had also positive influence on Chinese development.

First of all, the war “opened” China to the world community. Furthermore, it helped to turn China to the reality. Moreover, this war became the main factor that gave China opportunity to understand its weak position in the world political system, realize power of progress and technological advances, and weakness of feudal system. Furthermore, it was introduced such Western basements as parliamentary democracy, capitalism and international diplomacy. Influence of Western ideas helped to establish 1^st Chinese foreign ministry, which main goals were to study and analyze Western achievements and technological discoveries in order to improve Chinese army and found factories that could be compared with Western.

Furthermore, thanks to influence of capitalism, modern commercial enterprises became interested for investment. Moreover, Chinese government was one of the main founders of commercial factories. Immediately after the 1^st Opium War China had all chances to develop capitalism. Nevertheless, it did not happen because many Chinese officials using power of their positions tried to monopolize the markets and this practice became the main factor that slowed down development of private business.

The Second Opium War took place in 1856-1860, followed an incident, when Chinese officials boarded a vessel in October 1856 near Whampoa port (Arrow), which belonged to Chinese privateer. The owner registered the vessel in Hong Kong and received he permit for a one year from British authorities. However, this permeation had expired on the moment of inspection by Chinese official. The crew of the Arrow were arrested and accused in smuggling. But, in response, the British authorities, Guanzhou consulate claimed that Arrow was a British vessel. The British accused the Chinese officials. (Tsai Jung-fang) The second opium war started in 1865, when British attacked Guangzhou. In this war Russia, French and United States supported the British. French forces joined the British intervention after local mandarin killed Auguste Chapdelaine, French missionary. Other nations did not support British with military forces, but were involved diplomatically. British and French forces took Tianjin and Guanzhou and made the china to sign one more unequal treaty, Tianjin in July 1858. In this treaty China had to open 11 more ports, permit foreign legislation in Beijing, sanction Christian missionary activity, and legalize the import of opium. However Chinese could not ratified this inequality so easily.  China’s attempt to resist to entry and domination of foreigners led to renewal of the war in 1859. Chinese tried to block the entry of diplomats and establishment of British embassy in Beijing. In response, the imperial Summer palace (yuan ming yuan) and the Old Summer palace were burned by British and French forces. After this defeat, china had to ratify the treaty of Tianjin in 1860 at the Convention of Peking, finally legalizing the import of opium and providing additional privileges to British and other Western countries. (Immanual Hsu 215)

The series of rebellions took place in China between 1850 and 1873 against the foreign encroachment and unequal treaties, such as Taiping, Nian and Muslim  these rebellions caused a big torment and suffering in the history of China. The statistic says that only during Taiping rebellion 20-30 million were killed. The Taiping leader was hong Xiuqan (1814-1864). He was a schoolteacher from a poor family in Hakka in the Kwangtung. Hong Xiuquan was a revolutionary leader; he incorporated the western ideals and beliefs of Cristianity with calassical chinese culture. Hong announced himself the younger brother of Jesus, and that God had told him to release China form evil demons. The evil demons were Manchus, Confucians, Daosists and Buddhists.  The Ttaiping rebellions took place in 1851 – 1864, and caused the loss of millions of lives.  The Taiping rebellions began by attacking Confucian temples. They were supported by peasants, miners and workers. The army of Taipings numbered almost a million when the the rebellions controlled most of the Yangzi basin, they entered  sixteen of the eighteen Chinese provinces. Hong proclaimed the Heavinly Kingsom of Great peace in 1851 and two years after that made Nanjing his capital. The Taiping ideology was composed with ideology of Old Testament Christianity with an ancient text Zhou Rites, which was often used by reformers. The Taipings supported puritanical ethics and issue about equal sharing of property. Also they prohibited opium, tobacco, alcohol, gambling, adultery, prostitution and footbinding; the women were men’s equals and had access to administrative and military posts. However, the leaders of this movement did not have a good  education, and did not have enough skills to govern efficiently. Many ideals remained unfulfilled, the land was not redistributed. Finally, Ching dynasty managed to gather a new army with the aid of Western countries, and overthrow the Taipings. (Craig and Graham 836)

Another rebellion, called Nien took place in the Northern China in 1851-1868 in the same time with Taiping (1851-1864) that took place in South China. The Nien upraising appeared in the late 1840, they were united and formed by their leader Zhang Luoxing. Initially this movement did not have clear goals and objectives. They began as bandits from walled villages; they were organizing different secret societies, and lived by raiding the surrounding countryside. However, by 1851 they built an army of 40000 people, collected taxes and ruled 100000 square miles. They took direct actions the Imperial regime after the series of environmental disasters. In 1851 Huang He River had flood thousands of square miles and caused immense loss of life. The Qing government began slowly to recover after the disaster, but there were not enough sources to provide effective aid, because most of the finances were spent on war with Great Britain and on ongoing slaughter of the Taiping rebellion. In 1855, there were new flood, Huang He river had flood the fertile province of Jiangsu. The Qing government was trying to negotiate with Europeans, but it was unable to provide efficient relief, as the country still did not recover from previous damages, and financial resources were severely depleted. (Ownby, David)   These situations had led to Nien upraising, who blamed European powers Qing regime in China’s troubles, they viewed government as incompetent to manage the country wisely.  In 1855 Zhang Luoxing attacked governmental troops in Central China. Nien army was well organized and trained; they were equipped with modern firearms. As for Qing forces was very difficult to overwhelm the rebellions broke out across the China, Nien armies managed to conquer lands at economically important areas. In 1865 Qing government sent Mongol General Senggelinquin, who had crashed a large part of Taipings, to fight with Niens. Senggelinqin’s army destroyed most of the Nien forces and killed Zhang Luoxing. However, Nien movement survived with support of Taiping commanders. In late 1856, they managed to kill Sengelinquin and his bodyguards. The Imperial forces, left without its best military commander, was continuing to sent the generals, such as Zeng Guofan,  Li Hongzhang, Zuohongtang, providing their armies with modern equipment and weapon. So, in 1867-1868 the Imperia; troops recaptured the most Nien territories and crushed the rebellions. (Ownby 226-254)

            These rebellions, Nien and Taiping failed to topple the Qing regime, however had big influence on the Chinese economy. They failed to make a strong alliance, however they became a big threat to Chinese government and European policy.  These movements resulted in countless deaths, destroyed a lot of countryside, led to big financial problems and left the China in a very poor state of economy. Nien and Taiping became one of the major factors in collapse of Qing dynasty. (Perry 248)

In conclusion, two Opium war that were in China in the19^th century brought big social, economical, political and military changes. Some of them were positive such as introduction principles of parliamentary democracy and capitalism, but another was very negative: legalization of opium and exemption of foreigners from Chinese legislation.

Work Cited

Beeching, J., Epstein, I., and Graham S.  The Opium War and the Opening of China. 15 April 2008. <http://historyliterature.homestead.com/files/extended.html >.

Gronewold, S., and Gentzler, M. The Opium War and Foreign Encroachment. 15 April 2008. <http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/modern/opium.htm>.

Hanes, T., and Sanello, F. The Opium War 2006. 14 April 2008. <http://chancelucky.blogspot.com/2006/07/opium-wars-by-travis-hanes-and-frank.html>.

 Hooker, Richard. The Opium War. 1999. 15 April 2008. <http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHING/OPIUM.HTM>.

Immanual Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, 1985, pg. 215.

Meyer, K. The Opium War’s Secret History 1997. 14 April 2008. <http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990DE5DB1031F93BA15755C0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print>.

Miron, J., Feige C. The Opium Wars, Opium Legalization, and Opium Consumption in China. 2005. 14 April 2008. <http://www.nber.org/papers/w11355.pdf>.

Ownby, David. Approximations of Chinese Bandits: Perverse Rebels or Frustrated Bachelors? 2002.

Wasserstrom, Ed. and Brownell, S. Chinese Masculinities/Femininities. 2002

Perry, E. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845-1945 .Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980.

Tsai, Jung-fang. [1995]. Hong Kong in Chinese History: community and social unrest in the British Colony, 1842–1913.

Ulrich, T. The Manchu Conquest of China 2000.  14 April 2008. <http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/bottom>.

Wallbank, Taylor, Bailkey, Jewsbury, Lewis, Hackett. A Short History of the Opium Wars   1992. 15 April 2008. <http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0836734.html>.

Wakeman, Frederic Jr., The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, page: 128. 14 April 2008. <http://www-atdp.berkeley.edu/9931/tlaforce/opium_war.html>.

Wallechinsky, D., and Wallace, I., Cause of the Opium War Between England and China .  15 April 2008. <http://www.trivia-library.com/a/cause-of-the-opium-war-between-england-and-china.htm >.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 officially considered as the end of struggle or competition between two super powers and the beginning of modern Russia-U.S. relations.  Nevertheless, in order to understand present situation between Russia and U.S we can compare how their relations are covered in Russian and U.S. mass media.

After the 9/11, according to USA Today of the 20^th of September 20011, there was possibility that U.S.-Russian relations became closer because this tragedy could unify two nations against one common enemy: terrorism.  Moreover, this newspaper describes Putin as a “pragmatic politicians” who does not gain anything from confrontation between two countries.

Russian newspaper Izvestia2(2001) also proves this possibility and writes that Russia and West can become friends under the common threat such as terrorism.

In 2002, Council of Foreign Affairs3 publish article where author describes relations between Bush and Putin as friendly; nevertheless, author said that friendship should be used to discuss not only military questions but also human rights and terrorism.

In the article of the 16^th of May, 2002 of Izvestia4 provides words of Michael McFall, an expert in Russia, argued that Russia has not already perceived as a threat to the USA. Moreover, he said that present relations between Putin and Bush are closer that Yeltsin and Clinton.

In 2004, United Press International5 released a big article that was dedicated to future of Russia-U.S. relations. In order to understand it Peter Lavelle, Moscow analyst interviewed several experts such as Dale Herspring, Peter Rutland, Andrew C. Kuchins, Ira Straus, Gordon Hahn, Vlad Sobell and Janusz Bugajski.

Some of experts such Dale Herspring, Andrew C. Kuchins agree in one matter that nowadays USA has less opportunity to influence on Russia that during Soviet time. Peter Rutland, professor of government at Wesleyan University, argues that U.S. will find method how to maintain and conduct relations with “authoritarian Russia” using its experience with such “undemocratic rulers” as P. Musharaff in Pakistan or Royal family of Saudi Arabia.

Nevertheless, Gordon Hahn, a scholar and author of Russia’s Revolution for Above: Reform, Transition and Revolution in the Fall of the Soviet Communist Regime, 1985-2000, state that in spite of possibility to unify against terrorism, Russia and USA can differ in opinion concerned separation of Abkhazia and South Ossetia that Russia supports.

In November 2007, website of American National Public Radio6 that is listened by 26 million of Americans published article about rising of tensions between Russia and USA. It gives words of U.S. Vice-president Dick Cheney who state that Russia use “energy as a political tool” in the case of Ukraine. Moreover, one of the main reason of tensions between two countries, according to NPR, NATO’s eastward expansion when former Soviet Union’s states joined to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization that was created after WW II to fight against communism.

Article in Izvestia (2007)7 also proved reality of tensions between Russia and USA.  For example, author criticized statement of U.S. that Russia uses energy in order to press on their neighbors.   Moreover, according to this newspaper, Washington does not like that Russia sells weapon to Iran, Syria, and Venezuela; supports such regions as Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

In conclusion, according to U.S. and Russian mass media, from 2001 till 2007 U.S. – Russian relations have change very much: from possibility of closeness to political confrontation.

I.                   Introduction

a.      The Problem and Significance

Russian Presidential Elections that took place on March 2, 2008 was one of the main international news around the world. There were 4 candidates: Dmitry Medvedev, Gennady Zyuganov, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, and Andrei Bogdanov. According to the results, the third president of Russian Federation became Dmitri Medvedev.

All information published in international news source is very controversial. One news agency argued that elections were fair and without any big violations another wrote about some protest and bribery of voters. As a result, this controversy has induced me to investigate all details and information concerned the Russian Elections.

The main goals of this research are

·        To collect articles of Xinhua news agency, newspaper Washington Post, and international version of BBC World Service.

·        To identify and analyze differences and similarities;

·         To explain the main of causes of mass media reports’ controversies.

This investigation is very important because it helps

·        To draw objective picture of this elections;

·        To identify political attitude news sources and countries to Russia and its policy; and

·        To define impact of mass media on their audience.

This research can be very useful, first of all, for ordinary people who do not know more about news organization, agenda setting, and influence of media reports; and, secondly, for journalism student who want to objectively look at Russian elections.

 II.                Main Body

a.      Review of the background literature and theoretical knowledge

By this time, it has already been made one research that is published in Internet by Wikipedia Encyclopedia1. It also analyzes Russian Presidential Elections using Russian news sources as well as international.

 This research covers such main points concerned the elections such as election campaign, fairness of elections, and describe registered and dismissed candidates. As a whole, project published by Wikipedia, from my point of view, is very objective because present positions and opinions of different news sources. As a result, it helps an ordinary reader to formulate his/her own point of view.

Nevertheless, published research does not say anything about used mass media, their owners and main audience. Therefore, it is very difficult to understand influence of concrete news source on readers or viewers. Moreover, it is hard to identify presented information objective or biased.

In my investigation, I try to remedy these flaws and say more about owners, audience and position of mass media.

This research based on reports of newspaper, television and news agency. Any of them is very influential because can cover big amount of people during a short period of time.

Furthermore, very often point of view that represented by the mass media of any country is perceived as opinion of the state.

Moreover, media can easy influence mind of people through photos, video and comments. The best examples of such impact are “CNN effect”2 that is used by politics to persuade world community. The main point of “CNN effect” is 24-hour new coverage of any event such as war, disaster, international conflict, etc. using photos and video from the place of incident. It makes pressure on government and compels it to do immediate decision that can be spontaneous and thoughtless. As a result, it can lead to redoubling of conflict because of misunderstanding. If 24 hours a day to say that Iran, for example, has nuclear weapon, anyone unconsciously will believe in it. An intervention to this country will be perceived as a logical decision.

Finally, any person who watches, listens or reads news should be able to used such media literacy skills as thinking critically about media messages despite “how credible their source”, knowleging of the internal language of different media and “distinguishing emotional from reasonable reaction”.

Hypothesis of this research is position represented in the reports of international mass media mostly influenced by international relations of countries.           

b. Subject for Study

The main of objects of data collection are: Xinhua news agencies, BBC World Service, and Washington Post newspaper.

Xinhua is Chinese state biggest news agency that includes 107 international bureaus and 31 – in China. It provides news in 6 languages. Main audience is politicians, diplomats, journalist, etc3.

BBC is the British Broadcasting Corporation that located in the United Kingdom. The budget of BBC World Service based on a grant-in-aid by British government via Foreign and Commonwealth Office. It provides information in 33 languages. Main audience is international community, especially journalist, politicians, and diplomats4.

Washington Post is one of the biggest newspapers of USA.  It mostly concentrated on news that related White House, Congress, and U.S. government. This newspaper belongs to The Washington Post Company. Main audience is readers of the District of Columbia.5

c. Data – Collection Methods

All news reports that analyzed in the research are collected through Internet, especially from online versions of mass media from March 2-3, 2008. The main methods that are used in the investigation are content and comparative analysis of news reports. As a result, it is very easy way to collect information, allows investigating international versions of mass media, easy to identify main differences and similarities of articles.

d. Presentation, analysis and interpretation of data

            This part of project concentrated on comparison of news reports of such mass media as BBC World Service6, Washington Post newspaper7 and Xinhua news agency8.

            First of all, it was compared how different media write about new elected Russian president Dmitri Medvedev.

            Xinhua news agency describes him as a “close ally of Putin”. Nevertheless, Chinese agency pays much attention to the personal characteristics of Mr. Medvedev, and gives such definitions as “loyal, competent and pragmatic”.

            BBC provides mostly very restrained information about new president and writes such words: “a close ally of Mr. Putin… and the candidate of the pro-Kremlin United Russia party”.

            Washington Post in its article describes Mr. Medvedev using such ambiguous phrases as “Putin’s chosen successor”, “Putin’s choice”, and protégé. Moreover, this newspaper does not write anything about Medvedev’s professional and personal characteristics.

            Secondly, it was compared how mass media used in this investigation describes elections and elections campaign.

            Xinhua news agency does not say anything bad or good about conduction of elections and campaign. Furthermore, according to Chinese agency, national projects that D. Medvedev controlled and directed are the main causes why Russian mass media provides so much attention and space to him. Moreover, Xinhua does not give any information about violations and conflicts during the elections.

            Nevertheless, BBC and Washington Post mostly concentrated on this aspect. For example, BBC reports about boycott of election by OSCE because of  “restrictions imposed by Russia”. Furthermore, BBC provides as argument of unfairness of Russian elections words of “opposition” leader Boris Nemtsov who said that result of elections had been defined beforehand.  Moreover, BBC also as a confirmation of unfairness gives opinion of OSCE concerned the parliamentary elections in 2007, which, from OSCE point of view were “neither free nor fair”.

Washington Post describes Russian presidential elections using such phrase as “…a lackluster campaign that was more coronation than contest…”

            Moreover, Washington Post provides words of an “opposition” representative Garry Kasparov who argued that elections were “farce”.

            Furthermore, this newspaper said that ordinary workers voted for Mr. Medvedev under the pressure of their bosses.

            As a result of comparison of reports of different international media, it is very easy to determine difference and similarities and understand advantages and disadvantages of all investigated articles.

            First of all, all media reports Washington Post, BBC World Service as well as Xinhua present only one side.

            Xinhua news agency’s report is mostly positive and does not present opinions of another candidates for the president position.

            In contrast with Xinhua, article published by Washington Post is mostly negative, present only opposition view and does not provide an ordinary reader opinion of wining side. Moreover, newspaper uses controversial phrases.

            Article of BBC can be perceived as objective because it represents political platforms of all candidates. Nevertheless, it has some flaws because does not provide opinion of Mr. Medvedev concerned conduction of election campaign.  As a result, this omission can easy create doubts about fairness of Russian presidential elections.

            Finally, representation in news reports only one side can lead to misunderstanding of the event among ordinary audience that can not know real causes why these mass media represent especially this point of view.

            In conclusion, in order to explain the main cause why mass media represent only one side, it was analyzed international relations of Russia, the U.K. and the U.S.

            Xinhua’s positive article can be explained by such fact that Russia and China has very friendly relations. Moreover, Russia is the main Chinese exporter of weapon. Furthermore, leaders of Russia and China regularly visit each and make joint military exercises. China also support Russian position concerned Iran and did not voted for resolution against it. And China does not interested in spoiling their relations9.

            USA – Russian relations has tensions since the Cold War. But at the present time the main factors that create dispute between them is the widening of NATO, and attempts of Ukraine and Georgia, former Soviet Republics, to join to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. These issues constantly discussed in international mass media at present time. Furthermore, Russia did not support the U.S. war in Iraq in 2003.10

            Tensions between Russia and the Great Britain caused by, first of all, the case of killing of Mr. Litvinenko who suspected by Britain in espionage. Another reason is closing of British council branches in Russian Federation. 11

            Finally, the main factor that influence on the content of article represented in the global press is international relations between states.

III. Conclusion

In conclusion, the main goals of this investigation such as collecting articles, identifying and analyzing differences and similarities between articles of different international media. It was explained the main causes of controversies of information and defined impact of mass media on readers and viewers. Thanks to this investigation, ordinary people can see how content of article can mirror position one country to another. Furthermore, it was found out how media can be used as a tool of country to represent its view or opinion. Moreover, it was defined what media skills should reader or viewer be able to use in order to right understand article and formulate its own point of view.

Japanese Nuclear Program

            Nuclear power plants are used around the world in order to produce electricity. Nowadays, about 31 countries have 439 nuclear power stations. The United States of America produce 20% of electricity using the plants, France – 80%, EU and Japan – 30%.

            The idea to use atom energy for peaceful aims became real in 1950 when USA started “Atom For Peace” program. The main supporter of it was Japan that, first of all, was an ally of the US; secondly, this East Asian country has limited natural resources in order to produce electricity. As a result, in 1954 Japan started nuclear research program.

            1^st commercial nuclear reactor was imported form the UK.   Nevertheless, a large-scale construction was started in only 1970-1980 because of very high oil price. Finally, it led to fast growing of Japanese industry.

At the present time, Japan has had 55 nuclear power stations that produce 30% of their electricity. Moreover, in May 2008, it will be started The Rokkasho Nuclear Waste Reprocessing Plant at Aomori city. It was constructed with the assistance of France. It is the 1^st Japanese plant to extract plutonium and uranium from spent nuclear fuel and then Japan can reused them as fuel at nuclear power stations to produce electricity.  This nuclear reprocessing plant is able to produce 800 tons of plutonium per year.

Nevertheless, according to Greenpeace, reprocessing plants have some disadvantages such as emission of nuclear waste into the air and sea, radioactive materials can cause leukemia and cancer for the staff of the plant, and reprocessed plutonium can be used to produce nuclear bomb because it classified by IAEA as “nuclear weapons usable material”.

            But Japanese constitution absolutely prohibited using extracted plutonium for production of nuclear bomb and the International Atomic Energy Agency inspects all Japanese nuclear objects every year.  However, it is known that plutonium is usable for 24,000 year and uranium for 760 million years. Moreover, Japan has 25 tons of uranium, 5 of them located in the country and 43 tons of plutonium. In order to produce 1 nuclear bomb, it is needed about 8 kilograms of plutonium. As a result, if at the present time constitution of Japan prohibits creation of nuclear weapon, in thousands years Japan can change its policy and easy become nuclear threat.

Japanese Whaling

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was founded in 1946. It is the main organ that regulates whaling in order to save whale stock population to develop the whaling industry. In 1972 the UN Conference on the Human Environment passed a 10- year moratorium on commercial whaling. And in 1982, the IWC also adopted it but without the suggestion of the Scientific Commission that stated that moratorium was not necessary.

             Whaling issue divides countries 75 countries that are the members of the IWC on 2 blocs one of them is for whaling (34 states) and another is against (40 countries). States that support whaling industry include Japan, Norway, Iceland, Russia, and the U.S. (only Alaskan Eskimos). Anti-whaling countries are the U.S., the U.K., France, Australia, Switzerland, Monaco, New Zealand, etc.

            The issue concerned Japanese whaling was started after the adoption of moratorium by the IWC. Japan, Norway, and Iceland protested it. Nevertheless, Japan was forced to accept the whaling prohibition under the USA pressure. The U.S. threatened Japan to execute the Packwood-Magnuson Amendment that forbids fishing within the U.S. 200-mile coastal zone. Finally, it could have led to big Japanese losses: $650 million fishing industry and $40 billion trade with the U.S.

            Nevertheless, in 1988, the USA did not keep its promise and fulfilled the amendment on Japan. And Japan could not do anything because of Japan-U.S. Security Treaty. According to it USA guarantees to protect Japan in case of war attack.

             As a result, Japan started to practice scientific whaling in the Antarctic Ocean since 1988. It is not forbidden by the IWC.

            Japan insists on the renewal of whaling industry, especially for its country, because Japan has practiced whaling since 10,000 BC. Moreover, Buddhism religion until the middle of the 19^thcentury did not allow eating “4-legged animals”. Furthermore, scientific whaling that Japan practices aiming to identify population of whales in order to resume whaling and cutting open of the whale stomach in order to investigate its content is the most appropriate method. Moreover, the IWC does not prohibit it. And all collected data submitted to the IWC every year. Whale meat is sold only within country.

            Anti-whaling nations such as the U.S. consider that whales are very developed and intelligence animals and it is very cruel to kill them. Moreover, these states insist that whales are endangerous species and should be saved. It is interesting that such position was formed in 1960s when petroleum products substituted the whale oil. Oil of whales had been used since the 18^th century until 1960s. Mostly, it was used as machine and lamp oil. It helped to develop machine industry. As a result, by the WW II many types of whale in the Antarctic Ocean were on the verge of disappearance.

            There are some controversies; Japan wants to hunt 900-950 Minke and 50 Fin whales. Minke population is equal 900,000 and   Fin population – 40,000-50,000. At the same time, USA permits the Alaskan Eskimos to catch 67 Bowhead whales a year. Quantity of this type is equal to 10,000. Moreover, the Scientific Commission absolutely prohibits hunting on Bowhead whales. Furthermore, according to BBC, Fin whales (40,000-50,000) are endangerous, and Bowhead whales (10,000) are not. It is very interesting that the Secretary of the IWC, Dr. Ray Gambell argues that whaling on Minke whales is possible. But the IWC prohibits commercial whaling for this stock.

USA Troops in Japan

            American troops laid out in Japan after WW II in 1945. And in 1951, it was signed U.S.-Japan Security Treaty. The 1^st article of the treaty gives USA right to locate land, air, and sea forces on Japanese territory and around it. In exchange for it, USA guarantees to protect Japan in case of war, maintain peace and stability in Asian-Pacific Region. Moreover, in 1952 Japan and USA signed administrative agreement, according to it, U.S. soldiers were exempted from Japanese laws. But in 1995, because of big rape scandal connected with U.S. troops, this agreement was abolished.

            Nowadays, Japan has 94 U.S. military bases and 47,000 U.S. soldiers. The official goal of their presence is to maintain peace and stability on Far East. It is the biggest Pentagon military Forces in the Asian-Pacific Region and 2^nd biggest USA army forces in the world after NATO forces in Germany.

The main U.S. bases are located in Hokkaido and Honshu: Misawas, Tatikawa, and Asui. These bases have F-16 aircrafts that are capable to carry nuclear weapon. Okinawa also has military aviation, F-15 aircrafts. Moreover, this island has very strategic location because it 600 km away from Taiwan, 800 km- China, 1500 km- Korean Peninsula, and 500 km – Japan. It played one of the main roles in Vietnam War.

            In 1995, 3 U.S. soldiers from Okinawa were involved in a big rape scandal. They were accused in raping of 12-year –old Japanese girl. As a result, it led to demonstration. 80,000 people participated in it.  The main goal was to achieving of withdrawal of the U.S. troops from Japan. Finally, 3 U.S. soldiers were jailed to 6-7 years.

In February 2008, Japanese media again published information about rape case. On this occasion, a U.S. marine was accused in rapping of 14-year-old Japanese girl. However, he was released because girl’s family dropped the case against him.  Moreover, it happened February 28, after 2 days visit of the U.S. State Secretary Condoleezza Rice to Japan.

North Korean Nuclear Program

North Korea has uranium mines that content about 4 million tons of high-quality uranium ore. In the mid – 1960s, it was founded the Atomic Energy Research Complex in Yongbyon. The main specialists were Korean student who were trained in the USSR. In 1965, North Korea received it 1^stnuclear reactor from the Soviet Union. In 1977, the DPRK signed an agreement with the IAEA that allowed inspecting a research reactor.

Nuclear Weapon Program was started in 1980s. It was constructed 200 MWE nuclear reactor and nuclear reprocessing facilities in Taechon and Yongbyon. And in 1985, North Korea joined to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Moreover, in 1991, North and South Korea signed the Agreement on Reconciliation, Non-Aggression, Exchanges and Cooperation and the Joint Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula.

        January 1993, ignoring all agreement, North Korea refused the IAEA to conduct inspection of nuclear reprocessing facilities. March 12, 1993, North Korea attempted to withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. As a result, May 11, 1993, the UN Security Council urged the DPRK to cooperate with the IAEA.

        There were several U.S.- North Korea talks in June 1993, July 14-19,1993 in Geneva and June 1994 in Pyongyang. As a result, it was signed the Agreement Framework. According to it, North Korea would close its nuclear program if Pyongyang will be provided with oil and 2 light-water reactors to produce electricity. Moreover, North Korea wants to improve U.S.-North Korea relations and start of North-South negotiations.

        Nevertheless, Pyongyang did not stop its nuclear program and continued to extract plutonium. Nowadays, it can have 5-12 nuclear bombs [2007,IAEA].

        In 2003, North Korea withdrew from the Non-Proliferation Treaty. As a result, it was started Six-Party talks that include such countries as China, South Korea, North Korea, USA, Russia and Japan. The main points of these talks are security guarantees of USA to North Korea, the construction of Light Water Reactors, peaceful uses of nuclear energy, diplomatic relations, abolishing of financial restriction and trade normalization, verifiable and irreversible disarmament. Finally, the DPRK agreed to provide a complete and correct declaration of all its nuclear programs and disable all nuclear facilities by December 31, 2007. Also, it was guaranteed to provide one million tons of fuel oil to the North Korea. 100,000 tons of oil has already delivered. Furthermore, Pyongyang has stopped its nuclear reactor in Yongbyon.

        Nevertheless, agreements had not been realized by December 31, 2007 because North Korea firstly wants to receive promised oil shipments and be removed from Washington’s list of states sponsored terrorism. But USA waits closing of its nuclear program.

Bibliography

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BBC,GreatWhales.Availablefrom:http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/guides/456900/456973/html/nn10page1.stm

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BBC RUSSIA. Япония расследует возможность второй утечки на АЭС( Japan investigate possibility of the 2^nd escape of radioactive materials from power plant). Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/international/newsid_6902000/6902269.stm

Cosmo, Dean, T. Uranium enrichment: how to make an atomic bomb Available from: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/579

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TIME, Why Japan’s Whale Hunt Continues. Available from: http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1686486,00.html

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Cold War is the period of ideological, economical confrontation and military competition between USSR and USA and their allies1 that had lasted from the middle of 1940s to the end 1980s.

The official date of beginning of Cold War can be considered March 5, 1946 when Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill gave his the famous The Sinews of Peace speech in Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri.2 His phrase “Iron Curtain” became the basic of future ideological world division that had lied between Capitalist countries: the USA and its allies: Britain, Japan. France, West Germany and Canada; and Communist bloc: USSR, some countries of Eastern Europe, Cuba and China3.

The term  “Cold war” has well known since 1947 thanks to American journalist, Walter Lippmann who used this term to describe confrontation without “actual warfare”4 between USSR and USA, and their allies in the set of articles in New York Herald Tribune5 and the book The Cold War, a Study in U.S. Foreign Policy.

Owing to absence of the real war between USSR and USA that was undesirable because could led to nuclear war, this period was noted by numerous of proxy wars around the world (Greek Civil War (1946-1949), Korean War (1950-1953), Vietnam War (1959-1975), Soviet-Afghan War (1978-1989)6 and wide scaled international ideological propaganda from both sides: USSR and USA. The main method of transmission was radio because radio waves could easy reached many countries around the world, radio became cheaper and cheaper every year, and it was very difficult to the ordinary citizen to identify real location of a radio station.7

Soviet propaganda characterized by such features as glorifying of soviet society, working class, and state military achievements and describing of Western countries as imperialistic and exploiting. For these purposes Soviet Union used such sources of information as Radio Moscow, Radio Peace and Progress, TASS and the Novosti Press Agency that were monitored by the Ideology Department.

According to the CIA, Soviet Union’s spending on propaganda was equal to $3.3 billion per year. Running cost of international service of Radio Moscow was about $700 millions, international activities was $150 million, moreover, TASS and the Soviet News Agency spent $550 million a year in order to present Soviet point of view concerning global events.8

TASS news agency was one of the main tools of spreading of propaganda. It was the main news provider to Radio Moscow and the Soviet version of the Voice of America. Furthermore, TASS made steps to increase Soviet news providing in African countries, in 1963 it presented Kenya news agency free equipment to receive TASS news, nevertheless, Kenyan journalists used it to get Reuters news bulletin because they came earlier than TASS.9

USSR had several “international” radio stations that actually located in the Soviet Republic and provided its point of view in the news. For example, The “National Voice of Iran” and Radio Havana10

The main USA tool of international broadcasting and propaganda during cold war also was radio because it was the most accessible source of information.

USA made its best to reach and attract international audience and promote capitalistic values. Especially, the United States spent a lot of money on running of Voice of America. For instance, in 1948 budget of VOA was equal to about $10,000,000.

Radio Free Europe Inc. was founded in 1949 in order to broadcast news agenda to East European countries. The Radio Liberty was established in 1951 to provide news only to republics that located inside of the USSR. U.S. Congress via CIA financially supported radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. In 1975 both radio stations were merged into Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). It had 23 bureaus in Europe and Soviet Union.11

Very of often, Western mass media presented information earlier than Soviet. This practice helped them to easy influence on public opinion because citizens often tried to find access to Western news sources in order to more about any event that did not reported in Soviet press.

For instance, on February 25, 1956, the First Secretary of the Communist Party Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev gave one of the most famous speeches that are called On the Personality Cult and its Consequences that criticized regime of Joseph Stalin. Soviet newspaper Izvestia CK KPSS published it only in 1989, but in Western press it appeared in the beginning of March 1956 thanks to journalist of Reuters John Rettie.  In 2007, this speech was declared by Guardian as one of the greatest speech of the 20^th century.12

Furthermore, in 1983, when USSR brought down the Korean airline, Western radio stations were the first, which reported about the accident. Soviet version of this event appeared in their press only in one week.13

Moreover, in 1986, information about the Chernobyl nuclear plan disaster was broadcasted by Western radios in two days earlier.14

In conclusion, during the Cold War mass media was one of the main tools of international propaganda that equally were used by USSR and USA.